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????(Brahmanism) ?? ?? ???, ?? ??? ?? ??(1500-500 BC) ?? ?? ????? ???(??? · 婆羅門)??? ??? ?? ??? ???? 《????》·《?????》·《????》·《??????》? ???? ??? ???? ??? ?? ??? ??? ?? ????? ???(? · 梵)? ?? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ???,[3] ?? ??? ?? ?? ???(???? ?? ??? ??)? ??????? ??? ?? ?? ?? ??? ??? ??? ????.[4][5][6][7] ??? ??? ??? ???? ???? ????, ?? ???? ??? ????? ??? ???? ??.[8][9][10] ????? ???? ??? ?? ?? ? ????, ???? ????? ?? ???? ????.[6][11][note 1]
????? ?? ?? ??(??? 1500?–1100?)? ?? ???? ??? ???? ????? ???? ??? ???? ??(??? 2200?–1800?), ?????? ????? ??(??? 2000?–900?),[12][a] ??? ??(??? 2600?–1900?)? ??? ?? ??.[13] ?? ????? ??????? ?? ? ??? "? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ??"??,[14] ????-????? ??,[15] ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ????? "??? ??? ??? ??"? ????? ?? ????.[16][15]
?? ?? ??(??? 1100-500?)?? ??-??? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ??-??? ??? ??? ? ? ?? ???? ?????. ????? ??? ????? ?? ?? ??? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ?? ? ?? ?? ??? ???? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??? ? ????.[1][2][17][18][b]
????? ???? ??? ??? ?? ??, ??? ??? ? ??(???), ??? ?????(? ???) ?? ????.[19][20] ?? ??? ?? ??? ???? ???? ? ? ??.[21] ?????? ???? ???? ????, ???, ???, ???, ??? ?? ???, ??? ??? ????? ???, ?? ?? ??.
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[??]???? ??? 2?? ?? ???????? ?? ?? ??? ?? ???? ???? ???? ? ?? ??? ?? ??? ??? ????.[18][22] ????? ??? 1??? ???? ???? ??? ? ??? ??? ????. ????? ???, "??? ???(??) ?? ??? ???? ???, ?? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ??."[22]
??? ??
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[??]?? ??? ??? ??? ??? ? ?? ???? ???? ?? ???? ??? ?? ?? ?????? ??? ????[23][24][c]?? ??? ??? ????.[4][a] ?? ??? ? ?? ????? ??? ??? ??? ???? ??? ??? ???, ??? ? ?? ??? ???? ??? ?? ? ?? ?????? ??? ??.[4] ?? ??? ??? ???? ??? ??? ?? ??? ?? ??? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ??.[4][26] ? ??? ??? 1500??? 1100??? ?? ?? ??? ?? ??? ??? ?????,[27][d] ?? ?? ??(??? 1100?–500?)? ????? ????.[18][30] ?? ??? ??? ?? ???? ??? ???? ????? ??, ???? ??? ???? ? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ?? ?????.[1][2]
???? ??
[??]??????? ???? ???? ???? ????? ???? ??? ???? ??? ????? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ? ??? ?? ???????.[12][a][e] ????? ?? ?? ??? ??? ??? 2,000??? ??? ????.[50]
?? ?? ??? ?? ??? ??? ???? ?? ???? ??? ??? ??? ???, ???????? ??? ????? ??? ???? ??? ????.[51][f] ???? ???, ?? ?? ??? ??? ?????(??? ??????)? (???) ?? ??? ?? ???? ???? ???? ???? ???? ???.[14] ?? ????-????? ??(BMAC)?? “??? ??? ??? ??”? ??? “??? ????? ??? ??? ???? ??? ??? ???”???.[14][15] ??? ????? ??? ??? ?? ?? ??? ??? ???? ? ???? ??? ?? 383?? ?????? ??? ?? ?????.[52] ???? ??? ?? ???.
????? ?/??? ? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ? ????? ???? ???? ?? ?? ??? ?? ?? ???. ???? ????? 4?? 1? ???? 250?? ??? ??????. ?? ?? ?? ???? BMAC ???? ??? ??? ???? ???? ??(???? ??? ??? ??)? ??? ???. ?? ??? ?? ??? ????? ??? ?????.[36]
????? ??? ?? ????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ?? ????? ????.[53] ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ??? ????, ?? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?? ?? ?? ?????.[53] ????? ?? ??? "?? ??? ??"? ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ??? ????? ?????.[53] ???? ??? ?? ?? ??? ??? ???? ????.[54][55][56]
?? ?????? ??
[??]?? ??? "??????? ??? ??? ??? ???"? ?????.[57] ???(2003)? ?? ??? ????? ??? ???? ?????? "????? ??"? ?? ? ??? ????.[16]
?? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ?????, ??? ?? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?? ??? ?? ??, ??? ? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ?????. ?? ??? ??? 1100? ?? ???????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?????,[18][58][59] ???? ?? ??? ?? ?????.[2][4] ??? ?? ??? "????? ??? ? ??", ? ???? ???? ???? ???? ?? ? ???? ??? ?? ?? ???? ?? ??"[60] ? ????? ?? ??? ??? ?? ??? "??? ?? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ? ???"? ????? ????.[61][60][62]
???? ?? ??? ??? ???? ??? ???? ??. ?? ?? ????? ???????? ????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ????? ??? ?? ??? ??? ??.[63] ???? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ?? ??? ? ??? ????? ???? ??.[61][g] ?? ??? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ?? ?? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??? ????.[68][69]
?? ???
[??]???? ? ?????? ???, 19?? ?? ??????, ?? ??? ???? ??? ??? ??? ??? ????. ??, ???? ????, ??? ? ???? ??? ???? ?? ??? ??? ? ???? ???? ??? ?????. 20???, ?? ??? ?? ???? ??? ?? ? ??? ?? ? ?? ??? ???? ??? ???? ?? ??? ?? ???? ???? ??? ??.[70] ?? ??? ?? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ???, ??? ??? ? ??? ??? ??? ???? ??? ??? ?? ??.[b] ???? ??? ??? ?? ?? ?? ????? ?? ??? ????.[72] ??? ?? ??? ??-???? ?? ??? "?? ???"? ?????, ? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ?? ?????.[70]
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[??]????? ?? ???? ???? ????? ??? ???? ?? ?? ????? ??? ??? ??? ???? ?????.[4][18] ????? ???? ????? ??? ??? ?? ??? ????? ? ??????? ???????? ?? ?? ???? ???? ???? ???, ????? ?? ????? ??? ??? ?? ??? ????(???? ???)? ???? ??.[4] ??? ?? ??? ???? ???? ??? ??-??? ???? ??? ???? ?????, ??-??? ??? ?? ?? ? ?? ???? ?????.[18] ??? ??? ??? ?? ?? ??? ????.[2][73][74]
?????? ??? 16??? ??? ????? ????(1520–1596)? ?? ?????.[75] ?????, ??? ??? ?? ?? ???? ?? '????'?? ??? ???? ???? ???? ?? ?????, ? ??? ???? ???? ???? ??? ?? ???? ????.[76][77] 18??? 19???, ????? ???? ?? ???? ?? ????? ???? ????. ????? ??? ???? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ??? ?? ?? ?????? ???, ?????? ???? ?? ???, ?? ?????? ?? ??(????) ??? ???? ????.[5][78][79][80] ????? ??? ? ? ?? ??? ???? ??? ???? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??? ????, ? ? ??? ??? ??-??-?? ??? ????? ????.[81][82][83][h]
?2? ???? ?? ??? ??? ????? ??? ????.[84][85] ?? ????? ??? ??? ???? ??? ???? ??? ??, ???? ??, ?? ??? ???? ??? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ??,[86][87] ??? ??? ??? ???? ??? ?? ?? ???? ??? ??? ??? ???. ??? ??? ???? ???? ?? ??? ??? ??? ?? ????? ????? ??-??? ?? ??? ?????? ?????, ??? ???? ???.[88][30][17][2][1][18][4][b] ? "??? ????"? ???? ??? ? ?? ????? ?? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ????, ??? ??? ??? ????,[88] ?? ???? ???? ??? ?? ?? ?? ??? ????.[30]
???? ????? ????
[??]????? ????? ?? ??? ???? ??????? ??? ?? ?? ??? ???? ??. ?? ???? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???? ????, ??? ?? ??? ?? ???? ?? ?? ???? ????.[89] ?????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ??? ??? ?? ??? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ????. ? ??? ?? ??? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ?? ????.[90] ??? ?? ??? ???? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??????? ? 19?? ??? ????? ??? ???. ??? ?? ???? ???? ??? ? ???? ??? “?? ?? ??”? ??, ? ?? ???? ??? ??? “?????”? ?? ????? ?? ???? ??? ??? ????.[91] ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ?? ???? ??? ??? ?? ??? ?????.[91]
??? ??
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??
[??]????? ?? ???? ?? ?? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?? ??.[96][97] ???? ??? ????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??? ???? ??.[98][99]
??? ?? ???? ?? ???? ??? ?? ???? ?? ????? ?? ??? ?? ????.[100][101] ????? ???, ?? ??? ? ?? ??? ?? ??? ???(?? ??)? ?? ???? ????. ????? ?????? ?? ?? ?? ???? ??? ??? ?? ???? ????, ?? ??? ?? ?? ??? ??? ???, ?? ??? ????? ???? ????.[102][103][104] ??? ?? ?? ??? ????? ???? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ?? ??.[105][72] ????, ???????? ?????(c. 800 BCE) 4.4?? ?? ?? ??? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ? ??? ?? ??? ?? ????.[106][107]
?? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??? ?? ?? ??? ???? ???. ??? ???? ????? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ????. ?? ?? ??? ?? ??? ??? ???? ???? ???. ?? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ?? ??? ??? ?????.[72][108]
???? ???, ?? ???? ?? ??? "?? ?? ???? ??? ???? ????? ???? ??"???? ??? ??, ?? ???? ???? "??? ????? ??"??? ????? ???. ? ???? ??? ??? ???, ?? ?? ???.[109]
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- ????, ?? ??? ??? ??? ??[110]
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- ?????(???), ???? ??? ??? ??? ??? ?? ??? ???[20]
- ?????[110]
- ???????? ??? ?? ?? ??? ?? ??? ??[112]
- ???, ?? ???:
- ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ?? ??? ?? ?? ??? ??? ???.[113]
- ?????? ?? – 17??? ?? 5?? ? ? ??? ?? ?? ??. ????? ????? ????? ?? ???? ?? ??????? ????.[113]
- ???? – ?? ???? ??? ??? ???? ??????? ???? ??.[113]
- R. ??? ??? ???, ??? ??? ?????????? ??? ??? ?? ???? ?????. ??? ?????? ??????(?? ?), ?????, ???, ???, ??? ??? ???(??? ? ?), ?? ??(?? ? ?) ? ??? ??? ?? ? ?? ??? ??? ???? ??.[113]
???? ?? ??? ???? ???? ? ? ??. ??? ??? ???? ?? ?? H ??? ???? ??????, ?? ???? ????? ?????( agnidagdhá- ) ???? ??( ánagnidagdha- ) ??? ???? ??? ????.
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?????? ??? ??? ??? ?????, ??, ??, ??? ?? 11?? ? 33?? ??? ???? ??.[114] ??? ???? ??? ????? ? ?? ???? ??. ??(???, ???, ????, ??, ?? ?)? ??? ???? ??? ????? ??? ?? ??? ???? ???. ?????? ??? ??? ?? ??? ???? ???, ?? ???? ???, ??? ??? ?? ???? ???, ??-????? ????? ??? ??? ??? ?????.[115] ?? ???(?? ???? ?? ???)? '??' ??? ??????? ?? ??.[116]
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[??]??? ???? ? ??? ???? ???? ??????,[117][118] ????,[119] ???,[120] ?????,[121] ????, ?????,[122] ???,[123] ????,[124] ???,[125] ???,[126] ?????, ???, ???, ?????? ????, ??, ???, ????, ???? ?? ??.
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??? ??? ???? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??.[127]
??? ?? ???? ????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ???? ???? ??? ???? ????,[128][129] ??? ??, ? ? ???? ???? ??? ???? ?? ????.[128]
??? ??? ????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ??? ????. ?? ?? ??? “????? ??? ??, ??, ??? ? ?? ??”? ????.[130] ??? ???(1998)? ????? ? ??? “??? ???? ??? ?”?? ??? ? ??? - ?? ?? ?????? ????? ? ??? ??? ????? ??? ???? ????? ??? ? - ?????? “??? ??” ?? “?? ??” ?? ??? “??”? ??? ?? ??.[131] ??? ??? ??????? ??? ?????? ?? ????.[132]
?? ??????? ??? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ? ??? ? ???, ??? ?? ??? ?? ???? ??? ???? ???? ?? ?? ??? ??? ??? ? ???? ????? “?? ?? ??”??? ?? ??? ????? ???? ?? ??.[133]
? ??? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ????? ????.[134] ????? ??? ?? ?? ??? ???? ??????, ??? ???? ??? ? ???? ?????.[135]
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[??]?? ??? ??? ?? ?? ??? ??? ??? ?? ?(??) ????? ??? ?, ?, ??? ????? ???? ??? ?? ??.
?? ??? ????, ???, ??, ??, ???, ??, ??? ?? ? ???? ?? ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? ??. ??? ? ???? ????? ???? ???? ???, ???, ????, ??? ??, ?? ??? ????. ?? ??? ??? ???? ?? ???? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ????. ?? ???? ??? ?? ??? ????, ?? 33?? 8?? ???, 11?? ????, 12?? ?????, ??? ?? ????? ?????? ????. ? ??? ?? ?? ??, ?, ???? ??? ???.
?? ??? ?? ???? ???, ????, ???, ???, ???, ??, ???, ???, ???, ??, ??, ?????, ????, ??? ?? ??.[136]
?? ?? ??
[??]
?? ??? ??? 500??? ?? ??? ??? ??. ??? 800??? ??? 200? ??? ??? ?? ???, ????, ??? ?????.[139][140] ???? ??? ??? 500??? ??? 200? ??? ??? “???? ????”? ????,[141] ??? 200??? ??? 1100? ??? ??? “?? ??? ?? ?? ??? ???”? ?? ??? “?? ???”? ????. ??? ? ? ??? ??, ? ??? 800??? ??? 200? ??? '?? ??'?? ??? ???? ??? ??? ??? ???? ??”? ????. ???? ??? ???? ??? ? ?? ?? ??? ?? ??? ??? ???.[142]
?? "?? ??? ???? ?? ???? ?? ?? ?? ??? ?? ?? ????"? ????,[6] ????? ??? ????? ??? ?? ???? ????.[note 1] ?? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ? ????. ??? ??? ???? ???? ?? ?? ??? ???? ???? ??? ??? ??? ???? ??? ??? ??.[1][2][18][143][note 2] ???? ?? ??? ???, ??? ? ?? ??? ??? ???? ???? ?? ?? ??? ??? ????.[152]
?? ??? ??
[??]?? ????? ???, ?? ??? ????? ???? ???, ??? ???? ?? ???? ?????, ?? ???? ????? ????. ??? ??? ?? ??? ?? ?????, ???? ????? ???.[153]
???? ???? ??? ????? ???????? ? ??? ?? ??????? ?? ?? ??? ??? ???? ????? ???? ??.[8] ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ? ??? ?? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??? ?? ??? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ???? ? ??? ???? ????.[9][10]
???? ???
[??]??? ????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ??? ??? ??? ????, ??? ?? ???? ??? ??? ??? ????.[154] ???? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???? ????? ???? ???? ????. ?? ??? ??? ??? ?? ? ???? ???? ????.[155]
???? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ?? ?? ??? ?? ?? ??:
| “ | '??'? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ??? ???? ???? ??? ??? '??' ?? '??', ? '???' ??? ???? ??? ???? ??. ??? '?????'? ??? ?? ????? ?? '??'? ??? ?????, ??? ??? ??? ???? ? ??. ????? ?? ???? ??, ? ?? ??? ??? ???? ?? ???, ??? ???? ??? ?? ??? ?? ???.[156] | ” |
?????? ?? ??? ? ?? ?? ?? ? ??? ???? ????. ???? ???? “??? ?? ?? ??[??]”?? ???.[157]
???? ??
[??]??? ???? ??? ????? ?? ????.[158][159][j][160][161] ???? ?? ??? ???? ???? ??? "?? ???? ?? ? ??? ???? ?? ???? ???? ???"? ???? ???? ??? ?? ??? ?? ?????.[158][162] ????? ??? ???? ?????? ????.[163]
22?? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ??. ? ??? ???, ????? ????(????? ??? 6??? ??) ??? ??? ???.[164][165] ????? ??? 500???? ??? ??? 5???? 12??? ?? ???? ???? ????? ?? ???? ????.[166][167][168]
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[??]- ↑ ? ? Michaels (2004, 38?): "The legacy of the Vedic religion in Hinduism is generally overestimated. The influence of the mythology is indeed great, but the religious terminology changed considerably: all the key terms of Hinduism either do not exist in Vedic or have a completely different meaning. The religion of the Veda does not know the ethicised migration of the soul with retribution for acts (karma), the cyclical destruction of the world, or the idea of salvation during one's lifetime (jivanmukti; moksa; nirvana); the idea of the world as illusion (maya) must have gone against the grain of ancient India, and an omnipotent creator god emerges only in the late hymns of the rgveda. Nor did the Vedic religion know a caste system, the burning of widows, the ban on remarriage, images of gods and temples, Puja worship, Yoga, pilgrimages, vegetarianism, the holiness of cows, the doctrine of stages of life (asrama), or knew them only at their inception. Thus, it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions."
Jamison, Stephanie; Witzel, Michael (1992). “Vedic Hinduism” (PDF). Harvard University. 3?.: "... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradictio in terminis since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism."
See also Halbfass 1991, 1–2? - ↑ Scholars regard Hinduism as a synthesis[144][145] of various Indian cultures and traditions,[144][146] with diverse roots and no single founder.[147] Among its roots are the Vedic religion[146] of the late Vedic period and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans,[148] but also the religions of the Indus Valley civilisation,[149] the Sramana[150] or renouncer traditions[146] of east India,[150] and "popular or local traditions".[146] This Hindu synthesis emerged after the Vedic period, between ca. 500[144]–200[151] BCE and ca. 300 CE,[144] in the period of the Second Urbanisation and the early classical period of Hinduism, when the Epics and the first Purānas were composed.[144][151]
- ↑ ? ? ? The Indo-Aryans were pastoralists[18] who migrated into north-western India after the collapse of the Indus Valley civilization,[25][31][32] bringing with them their language[33] and religion.[34][35] They were closely related to the Indo-Aryans who founded Mitanni kingdom in northern Syria[36] (c.1500–1300 BCE).
Both groups were rooted in the Andronovo-culture[37] in the Bactria–Margiana era, in present northern Afghanistan,[36] and related to the Indo-Iranians, from which they split off around 1800–1600 BCE.[38] Their roots go back further to the Sintashta culture, with funeral sacrifices which show close parallels to the sacrificial funeral rites of the Rig Veda.[39]
The immigrations consisted probably of small groups of people.[12] Kenoyer (1998) notes that "there is no archaeological or biological evidence for invasions or mass migrations into the Indus Valley between the end of the Harappan phase, about 1900 B.C. and the beginning of the Early Historic period around 600 B.C."[40]
For an overview of the current relevant research, see the following references.[41][42][43][12] - ↑ ? ? ? Scholars such as Jan Gonda have used the term ancient Hinduism, distinguishing it from "recent Hinduism". Stephanie W. Jamison and Michael Witzel (1992) "... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradictio in terminis since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism".[26]
According to the Encyclop?dia Britannica, from the Vedic religion emerged Brahmanism, a religious tradition of ancient India. It states, "Brahmanism emphasized the rites performed by, and the status of, the Brahman, or priestly, class as well as speculation about Brahman (the Absolute reality) as theorized in the Upanishads (speculative philosophical texts that are considered to be part of the Vedas, or scriptures)."[71] From Brahmanism developed Hinduism, when it was synthesized with the non-Vedic Indo-Aryan religious heritage of the eastern Ganges plain and with local religious traditions.[17][2][1][18] - ↑ Michaels: "They called themselves arya ('Aryans', literally 'the hospitable', from the Vedic arya, 'homey, the hospitable') but even in the Rgveda, arya denotes a cultural and linguistic boundary and not only a racial one."[25]
- ↑ There is no exact dating possible for the beginning of the Vedic period. Witzel mentions a range between 1900 and 1400 BCE.[28] Flood (1996) mentions 1500 BCE.[29]
- ↑ Some writers and archaeologists have opposed the notion of a migration of Indo-Aryans into India,[44][45][25][46] due to a lack of archaeological evidence and signs of cultural continuity,[25] hypothesizing instead a slow process of acculturation[25] or transformation.[31] According to Upinder Singh, "The original homeland of the Indo-Europeans and Indo-Aryans is the subject of continuing debate among philologists, linguists, historians, archaeologists, and others. The dominant view is that the Indo-Aryams came to the subcontinent as immigrants. Another view, advocated mainly by some Indian scholars, is that they were indigenous to the subcontinent."[46] Edwin Bryant used the term "Indo-Aryan controversy" for an oversight of the Indo-Aryan migration theory, and some of its opponents.[47]
Mallory and Adams note that two types of models "enjoy significant international currency", namely the Anatolian hypothesis, and a migration out of the Eurasian steppes.[48] Linguistic and archaeological data clearly show a cultural change after 1750 BCE,[25] with the linguistic and religious data clearly showing links with Indo-European languages and religion.[49] According to Singh, "The dominant view is that the Indo-Aryans came to the subcontinent as immigrants."[46]
An overview of the "Indigenist position" can be obtained from Bryant & Patton (2005).[47] See also the article Indigenous Aryans - ↑ See Kuz?mina (2007), The Origin of the Indo-Iranians, p. 339, for an overview of publications up to 1997 on this subject.
- ↑ Up to the late 19th century, the Nuristanis of Afghanistan observed a primitive form of Hinduism until they were forcibly converted to Islam under the rule of Abdur Rahman Khan.[64][65][66] However, aspects of the historical Vedic religion survived in other corners of the Indian subcontinent, such as Kerala, where the Nambudiri Brahmins continue the ancient ?rauta rituals. The Kalash people residing in northwest Pakistan also continue to practice a form of the ancient Vedic religion.[61][67]
- ↑ For the metaphysical concept of Brahman, see: Lipner, Julius (2012). 《Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices》. Routledge. 251–252, 283, 366–369?. ISBN 978-1-135-24061-5; Perrett, Roy W. (1998). 《Hindu Ethics: A Philosophical Study》. University of Hawaii Press. 53–54?. ISBN 978-0-8248-2085-5.
- ↑ Upanishads thought to date from the Vedic period are B?hadāra?yaka, Chāndogya, Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana.
- ↑ Cromwell: "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."[158]
???
[??]- ↑ ? ? ? ? ? ? Bronkhorst 2007.
- ↑ ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Samuel 2010.
- ↑ "????"[?? ??(?? ?? ??)], ??? ?? ?????. 2011? 2? 13?? ??.
- ↑ ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Heesterman 2005, 9552–9553?.
- ↑ ? ? 〈Vedic religion〉. 《Encyclopedia Britannica》.
- ↑ ? ? ? Sullivan 2001, 9?.
- ↑ Samuel 2010, 97–99, 113–118?.
- ↑ ? ? Knipe 2015, 41–45, 220–223?.
- ↑ ? ? Witzel, Michael (2004). 〈Kalash Religion (extract from 'The ?gvedic Religious System and its Central Asian and Hindukush Antecedents〉. Griffiths, A.; Houben, J.E.M. 《The Vedas: Texts, language, and ritual》. Groningen: Forsten. 581–636?.
- ↑ ? ? “Kalasha religion” (PDF). section 1.5.2.
- ↑ Michaels 2004, 38?.
- ↑ ? ? ? ? Anthony 2007.
- ↑ White 2003.
- ↑ ? ? ? Anthony 2007, 462?.
- ↑ ? ? ? Beckwith 2011, 32?.
- ↑ ? ? White 2003, 28?.
- ↑ ? ? ? 〈Vedic religion〉. 《Encyclopedia Britannica》.
It [Vedic religion] takes its name from the collections of sacred texts known as the Vedas. Vedism is the oldest stratum of religious activity in India for which there exist written materials. It was one of the major traditions that shaped Hinduism.
- ↑ ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Witzel 1995.
- ↑ ? ? Prasoon, Shrikant (2010? 8? 11?). 〈Ch. 2, Vedang, Kalp〉. 《Indian Scriptures》. Pustak Mahal. ISBN 978-81-223-1007-8.
- ↑ ? ? Griffith, Ralph Thomas Hotchkin (1987) [1899]. 《The Texts of the White Yajurveda. Translated with a popular commentary》 Reprint?. Benaras: E. J. Lazarus and Co. ISBN 81-215-0047-8.
- ↑ Stephanie Jamison (2015). 《The Rigveda — Earliest Religious Poetry of India》. Oxford University Press. 1393, 1399?. ISBN 978-0190633394.
- ↑ ? ? Jan C. Heesterman (1987) (1987), Vedism and Brahmanism, MacMillan Encyclopedia of Religion
- ↑ Kuz'mina 2007, 319?.
- ↑ Singh 2008, 185?.
- ↑ ? ? ? ? ? ? Michaels 2004, 33?.
- ↑ ? ? Jamison, Stephanie; Witzel, Michael (1992). “Vedic Hinduism” (PDF). Harvard University. 2–4?. 2018? 8? 4?? ???.
- ↑ Michaels 2004, 32–36?.
- ↑ Witzel 1995, 3–4?.
- ↑ Flood 1996, 21?.
- ↑ ? ? ? Bronkhorst 2016, 9–10?.
- ↑ ? ? Flood 1996, 30–35?.
- ↑ Hiltebeitel 2007, 5?.
- ↑ Samuel 2010, 53–56?.
- ↑ Flood 1996, 30?.
- ↑ Hiltebeitel 2007, 5–7?.
- ↑ ? ? ? Anthony 2007, 454?.
- ↑ Anthony 2007, 410–411?.
- ↑ Anthony 2007, 408?.
- ↑ Anthony 2007, 375, 408–411?.
- ↑ Kenoyer, M. (1998). 《Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization》. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press. 174?.
- ↑ Witzel, Michael (2001). “Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts” (PDF). 《Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies (EJVS)》 7 (3): 1–93.
- ↑ Ratnagar, Shereen (2008). 〈The Aryan homeland debate in India〉. Kohl, P. L.; Kozelsky, M.; Ben-Yehuda, N. 《Selective Remembrances: Archaeology in the construction, commemoration, and consecration of national pasts》. 349–378?.
- ↑ Bhan, Suraj (2002). 〈Aryanization of the Indus Civilization〉. Panikkar, K. N.; Byres, T. J.; Patnaik, U. 《The Making of History》. 41–55?.
- ↑ Bryant 2001.
- ↑ Bryant, Edwin. 2001. The Indo-Aryan Controversy, p. 342
- ↑ ? ? ? Singh 2008, 186?.
- ↑ ? ? Bryant & Patton 2005.
- ↑ Mallory & Adams 2006, 460–461?.
- ↑ Flood 1996, 33?.
- ↑ Pletcher, Kenneth (2010). 《The History of India》. Britannica Educational Publishing. 60?.
- ↑ Roger D. Woodard (2006? 8? 18?). 《Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult》. University of Illinois Press. 242–?. ISBN 978-0-252-09295-4.
- ↑ Anthony 2007, 454–455?.
- ↑ ? ? ? Anthony 2007, 49?.
- ↑ Anthony 2007, 50?.
- ↑ Flood 2008, 68?.
- ↑ Melton & Baumann 2010, 1412?.
- ↑ White 2006, 28?.
- ↑ Samuel 2010, 48–51, 61–93?.
- ↑ Hiltebeitel 2007, 8–10?.
- ↑ ? ? Jamison, Stephanie; Witzel, Michael (1992). “Vedic Hinduism” (PDF). Harvard University. 1–5, 47–52, 74–77?. 2018? 8? 4?? ???.
- ↑ ? ? ? West, Barbara A. (2010? 5? 19?). 《Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania》 (??). Infobase Publishing. 357?. ISBN 9781438119137.
The Kalasha are a unique people living in just three valleys near Chitral, Pakistan, the capital of North-West Frontier Province, which borders Afghanistan. Unlike their neighbors in the Hindu Kush Mountains on both the Afghani and Pakistani sides of the border the Kalasha have not converted to Islam. During the mid-20th century a few Kalasha villages in Pakistan were forcibly converted to this dominant religion, but the people fought the conversion and once official pressure was removed the vast majority continued to practice their own religion. Their religion is a form of Hinduism that recognizes many gods and spirits ... given their Indo-Aryan language, ... the religion of the Kalasha is much more closely aligned to the Hinduism of their Indian neighbors that to the religion of Alexander the Great and his armies.
- ↑ Samuel 2010, 113?.
- ↑ Knipe 2015, 1–50?.
- ↑ Minahan, James B. (2014). 《Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia》 (??). ABC-CLIO. 205?. ISBN 9781610690188.
Living in the high mountain valleys, the Nuristani retained their ancient culture and their religion, a form of the ancient Vedic religion with many customs and rituals developed locally. Certain deities were revered only by one tribe or community, but one deity was universally worshipped by all Nuristani as the Creator, the Hindu god Yama Raja, called imr'o or imra by the Nuristani tribes.
- ↑ Barrington, Nicholas; Kendrick, Joseph T.; Schlagintweit, Reinhard (2006? 4? 18?). 《A Passage to Nuristan: Exploring the mysterious Afghan hinterland》 (??). I.B. Tauris. 111?. ISBN 9781845111755.
Prominent sites include Hadda, near Jalalabad, but Buddhism never seems to have penetrated the remote valleys of Nuristan, where the people continued to practice an early form of polytheistic Hinduism.
- ↑ Weiss, Mitch; Maurer, Kevin (2012? 12? 31?). 《No Way Out: A story of valor in the mountains of Afghanistan》 (??). Berkley Caliber. 299?. ISBN 9780425253403.
Up until the late nineteenth century, many Nuristanis practiced a primitive form of Hinduism. It was the last area in Afghanistan to convert to Islam—and the conversion was accomplished by the sword.
- ↑ Bezhan, Frud (2017? 4? 19?). “Pakistan's Forgotten Pagans get their Due” (??). Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 2017? 7? 31?? ???.
About half of the Kalash practice a form of ancient Hinduism infused with old pagan and animist beliefs.
- ↑ Witzel, Michael (2012). 《The Origin of the World's Mythologies》.
- ↑ Witzel, Michael (2005). 《Vala and Iwato: The Myth of the Hidden Sun in India, Japan, and beyond》 (PDF).
- ↑ ? ? von Stietencron 2005, 231–237 with footnotes?.
- ↑ 〈Brahmanism〉. 《Encyclopedia Britannica》. 2023? 9? 15?.
- ↑ ? ? ? Laumakis 2008.
- ↑ Basham 1989, 74–75?.
- ↑ 〈yaksha〉. 《Encyclop?dia Britannica》.
- ↑ ?upanov, Ines G. (2005). 《Missionary Tropics: The Catholic Frontier in India (16th–17th Centuries)》. University of Michigan Press. 18ff?. ISBN 0-472-11490-5.
- ↑ Maritain, Jacques; Watkin, E. I. (2005). 《An Introduction to Philosophy》. Rowman & Littlefield. 7?. ISBN 978-0-7425-5053-7.
- ↑ Robinson, Catherine A. (2014). 《Interpretations of the Bhagavad-Gita and Images of the Hindu Tradition: The song of the Lord》. Routledge. page 164, footnote 9. ISBN 978-1-134-27891-6.
- ↑ Maritain, Jacques (2005). 《An Introduction to Philosophy》. Rowman & Littlefield. pages 6–7 footnote 1. ISBN 978-0-7425-5053-7.
This [the primitive religion of the Vedas] resulted, after a period of confusion, in the formation of a new system, Brahmanism (or Hinduism), which is essentially a philosophy, a metaphysic, a work of human speculation, ...; [footnote 1]... the neuter, Brahman, as the one impersonal substance.
- ↑ Leaman, Oliver (2002). 《Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings》. Routledge. 64–65?. ISBN 978-1-134-68918-7.
The early Upanishads are primarily metaphysical treatises concerned with identifying the Brahman, the ground of the universe. ... The essence of early Brahmanism is the search for the Absolute and its natural development is in Vedantin monism which claims that the soul is identical with the Absolute.
- ↑ Biardeau, Madeleine (1994). 《Hinduism: The anthropology of a civilization》. Oxford University Press. 17–22?. ISBN 978-0-19-563389-4.
- ↑ Monier-Williams, Monier (1891). 《Brāhmanism and Hindūism: Or, Religious Thought and Life in India, as Based on the Veda and Other Sacred Books of the Hindūs》. J. Murray. 2–3?.
- ↑ Sullivan 2001, 137?.
- ↑ Lochtefeld, James (2001). 〈Brahman〉. 《The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism》. 1: A–M. Rosen Publishing. 122?. ISBN 978-0823931798.
- ↑ Michaels 2004, 37–39?.
- ↑ Bronkhorst 2017, 363?.
- ↑ Bronkhorst, Johannes (2011). 《Buddhism in the Shadow of Brahmanism》. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-20140-8. OCLC 729756183.
- ↑ Chande, M. B. (1998). 《Kautilyan Arthasastra》. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors. ISBN 81-7156-733-9. OCLC 71205138.
- ↑ ? ? Bronkhorst 2015, 2?.
- ↑ ?:Cite q
- ↑ 'Hindutva Is Nothing But Brahminism', Outlook, 5 April 2002.
- ↑ ? ? Raf Gelders, Willem Delders (2003),Mantras of Anti-Brahmanism: Colonial Experience of Indian Intellectuals, Economic and Political Weekly 38(43):4611–4617. DOI:10.2307/4414197
- ↑ Goodall, Dominic (2001). 《Hindu Scriptures》. Motilal Banarsidass. ix–xx?. ISBN 978-81-208-1770-8.
- ↑ Kramer, Kenneth (January 1986). 《World Scriptures: An Introduction to Comparative Religions》. Paulist Press. 34ff?. ISBN 978-0-8091-2781-8.
- ↑ David Christian (2011? 9? 1?). 《Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History》. University of California Press. 18ff?. ISBN 978-0-520-95067-2.
- ↑ Singh 2008, 206ff?.
- ↑ Boyer, A. M. (1901). “Etude sur l'origine de la doctrine du samsara”. 《Journal Asiatique》 9 (18): 451–453, 459–468.
- ↑ Krishan, Yuvraj (1997). 《Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan》. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. ISBN 978-81-208-1233-8.
- ↑ Laumakis 2008, 90–99?.
- ↑ Ranade, R. D. (1926). 《A Constructive Survey of Upanishadic Philosophy》. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. 147–148?.
... in certain other places [of Rigveda], an approach is being made to the idea of Transmigration. ... There we definitely know that the whole hymn is address to a departed spirit, and the poet [of the Rigvedic hymn] says that he is going to recall the departed soul in order that it may return again and live.
- ↑ Laumakis 2008, 90?.
- ↑ Atsushi Hayakawa (2014). 《Circulation of Fire in the Veda》. LIT Verlag Münster. 66–67, 101–103?. ISBN 978-3-643-90472-0.
- ↑ Sayers, Matthew R. (2013). 《Feeding the Dead: Ancestor worship in ancient India》. Oxford University Press. 1–9?. ISBN 978-0-19-989643-1.
- ↑ Sayers, Matthew Rae. 《Feeding the ancestors: ancestor worship in ancient Hinduism and Buddhism》 (????). University of Texas. 12?.
- ↑ Sayers, Matthew R. (2015? 11? 1?). McGovern, Nathan, ??. “Feeding the Dead: Ancestor worship in ancient India”. 《The Journal of Hindu Studies》 8 (3): 336–338. doi:10.1093/jhs/hiv034. ISSN 1756-4255.
- ↑ Keown, Damien (2013). 《Buddhism: A very short introduction》. Oxford University Press. 28, 32–38?. ISBN 978-0-19-966383-5.
- ↑ Tull, Herman Wayne (1989). 《The Vedic Origins of Karma: Cosmos as man in ancient Indian myth and ritual》. State University of New York Press. 1–3, 11–12?. ISBN 978-0-7914-0094-4.
- ↑ “Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5–6”. Berkley Center for Religion Peace & World Affairs. Georgetown University. 2012. 2013? 4? 13?? ?? ???? ??? ??.
- ↑ Sayers, Matthew R. (2015). “The ?rāddha: The Development of Ancestor Worship in Classical Hinduism”. 《Religion Compass》 (??) 9 (6): 182–197. doi:10.1111/rec3.12155. ISSN 1749-8171.
- ↑ Flood 2008, 273?.
- ↑ ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Renou, Louis (1947). 《Vedic India》. Susil Gupta. 101–110?.
- ↑ Jamison, Stephanie; Brereton, Joel (2014). 《The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India》. Oxford University Press. 32?.
- ↑ Bloomfield, Maurice (2004? 6? 1?). 《Hymns of the Atharva Veda》. Kessinger Publishing. 1–8?. ISBN 1419125087.
- ↑ ? ? ? ? 《The Vedas: With Illustrative Extracts》. ?? Ralph Thomas Hotchkin Griffith; T. B. Griffith. Book Tree, 2003. 2003. 56–57?. ISBN 9781585092239.
- ↑ Singhal, K. C.; Gupta, Roshan (2003). 〈Vedic period: A new interpretation〉. 《The Ancient History of India》. Atlantic Publishers and Distributors. 150?. ISBN 8126902868.
- ↑ 〈Haoma i. Botany〉. 《Encyclop?dia Iranica》.
- ↑ Renou, Louis (1985) [1947]. 《L'Inde Classique》. Librairie d'Ameriqe et d'Orient 1. Paris. 328?. ISBN 2-7200-1035-9.
- ↑ Staal, Frits (2008). 《Discovering the Vedas: Origins, mantras, rituals, insights》. Penguin Books. 3, 365?. ISBN 978-0-14-309986-4.
- ↑ Olivelle, Patrick (1992). 《The Samnyasa Upanisads: Hindu scriptures on asceticism and renunciation》. Oxford University Press. 92, 140–146?. ISBN 978-0-19-536137-7.
- ↑ Dalal, Roshen (2010). 《Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide》. Penguin Books. 48?. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
- ↑ Dalal, Roshen (2010). 《Hinduism: An alphabetical guide》. Penguin Books. 49?. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
- ↑ Dalal, Roshen (2010). 《Hinduism: An alphabetical guide》. Penguin Books. 66–67?. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
- ↑ Dalal, Roshen (2010). 《Hinduism: An alphabetical guide》. Penguin Books. 175?. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
- ↑ Dalal, Roshen (2010). 《Hinduism: An alphabetical guide》. Penguin Books. 200–201?. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
- ↑ Dalal, Roshen (2010). 《Hinduism: An alphabetical guide》. Penguin Books. 447–448?. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
- ↑ Dalal, Roshen (2010). 《Hinduism: An alphabetical guide》. Penguin Books. 74?. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
- ↑ Dalal, Roshen (2010). 《Hinduism: An alphabetical guide》. Penguin Books. 218?. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
- ↑ Bodewitz, Henk W. (2019). 《Vedic Cosmology and Ethics: Selected Studies》 (??). Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-39864-1.
- ↑ ? ? Tiwari, K. N. (1998). 《Classical Indian Ethical Thought》. Motilal Banarsidass. 87?. ISBN 978-8120816077.
- ↑ A Dhand (2002), The dharma of ethics, the ethics of dharma: Quizzing the ideals of Hinduism, Journal of Religious Ethics, 30(3), pages 347–372
- ↑ Monier-Williams (1899:223b)
- ↑ Mahony (1998:3).
- ↑ Oldenberg (1894) p 30. Cf. also Thieme (1960) p 308.
- ↑ Cf. Ramakrishna (1965) pp. 45–46
- ↑ Duchesne-Guillemin 1963, 46?.
- ↑ Day, Terence P. (1982). 《The Conception of Punishment in Early Indian Literature》. Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. 42–45?. ISBN 0-919812-15-5.
- ↑ Macdonell, A.A. (1995). 《Vedic Mythology》. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-1113-5 – Google Books ??.
- ↑ Singh, N. (1992). “The vivaha (marriage) Samskara as a paradigm for religio-cultural integration in Hinduism”. 《Journal for the Study of Religion》 5 (1): 31–40. JSTOR 24764135.
- ↑ Vivekananda, Swami (2005). 《Prabuddha Bharata》 [Awakened India]. Prabuddha Bharata Press. 362, 594?. ISBN 9788178231686.
- ↑ Michaels 2004, 36–38?.
- ↑ Flood 1996, 82, 224–49?.
- ↑ Michaels 2004, 36?.
- ↑ Muesse 2003, 115?.
- ↑ Eliade, Mircea (2011). 《From Gautama Buddha to the Triumph of Christianity》. History of Religious Ideas 2. University of Chicago Press. 44–46?. ISBN 978-0-226-02735-7.
- ↑ ? ? ? ? ? Hiltebeitel 2007, 12?.
- ↑ Samuel 2010, 193?.
- ↑ ? ? ? ? Flood 1996, 16?.
- ↑ Osborne 2005, 9?.
- ↑ Samuel 2010, 48-53?.
- ↑ Hiltebeitel 2007, 3?.
- ↑ ? ? Gomez 2013, 42?.
- ↑ ? ? Larson 2009.
- ↑ Eliade, Mircea (2011). 《From Gautama Buddha to the Triumph of Christianity》. History of Religious Ideas 2. University of Chicago Press. 49–54?. ISBN 978-0-226-02735-7.
- ↑ Michaels 2004, 40?.
- ↑ Neville, Robert (2001). 《Religious Truth》. SUNY Press. 51?. ISBN 9780791447789.
- ↑ Coward, Harold (2008). 《The perfectibility of human nature in eastern and western thought》. SUNY Press. 114?. ISBN 9780791473368.
- ↑ Fowler, Jeaneane D. 《Perspectives of Reality: An introduction to the philosophy of Hinduism》. 46?.
- ↑ Hume, Robert E. (1966). 《The American College Dictionary》. Random House.
[Vedānta] is concerned with the end of the Vedas, both chronologically and teleologically.
- ↑ ? ? ? Crawford, S. Cromwell (1972). 〈review of L. M. Joshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism〉. 《Philosophy East and West》.
- ↑ Kalghatgi, Dr. T.G. (1988). 《Study of Jainism》. Jaipur: Prakrit Bharti Academy.
- ↑ Masih, Y. (2000). 《A Comparative Study of Religions》. Delhi, IN: Motilal Banarsidass. 18?. ISBN 81-208-0815-0.
There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to Vedic sacrifices, Vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed ... much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times.
- ↑ Jaini, P.S. (1979). 《The Jaina Path to Purification》. Delhi, IN: Motilal Banarsidass. 169?.
Jainas themselves have no memory of a time when they fell within the Vedic fold. Any theory that attempts to link the two traditions, moreover fails to appreciate rather distinctive and very non-Vedic character of Jaina cosmology, soul theory, karmic doctrine and atheism.
- ↑ Zimmer 1989, 217?.
- ↑ Svarghese, Alexander P. (2008). 《India : History, religion, vision and contribution to the world》. 259–260?.
- ↑ Helmuth von Glasenapp, Shridhar B. Shrotri. 1999. Jainism: an Indian religion of salvation. P.24. "Thus not only nothing, from the philosophical and the historical point of view, comes in the way of the supposition that Jainism was established by Parsva around 800 BCE, but it is rather confirmed in everything that we know of the spiritual life of that period."
- ↑ Dundas, Paul (2002). 《The Jains》. 17?.
Jainism, then, was in origin merely one component of a north Indian ascetic culture that flourished in the Ganges basin from around the eighth or seventh centuries BCE.
- ↑ Ruhe, Brian. 《Freeing the Buddha: Diversity on a sacred path – large scale concerns》. 78–83?.
- ↑ Sarao, K.T.S. 《A text book of the history of Theravāda Buddhism》. Dept. of Buddhist Studies. University of Delhi. 110?.
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